East London - Heritage & Culture
The Eastern Cape has played a very prominent role in South African history. It was here where, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, black and white met for the first time, and for many years this territory was the contact zone between these two groups. The consequences of this delicate and somewhat temperamental relationship made a lasting impression on the history of modern South Africa. Today, almost two hundred years later, the Buffalo City community reflects this turbulent past in the kaleidoscope of its rich cultural heritage and proud history.

An abundance of attractions are found in the region, reflecting its rich cultural, natural and historical heritage. Authentic cultural experiences encompass traditional, picturesque Xhosa villages, and British, Dutch and German settlements.

The interesting hinterland can be easily explored from the city giving an opportunity to experience the rich cultural Xhosa heritage that includes several museums and traditional rural life. A notable feature of the Transkei countryside are clusters of white-painted rondavel-type huts huddle against the sides of sloping green hills.

Long before the ensuing black-white contact of the 18th century, man had already left his mark in this area. The discovery of the Nahoon footprints in 1964 dates human presence in the area to about 200 000 years ago, making Buffalo City the site of the world's oldest fossilized human footprints. Though very little is known about this archaic anatomically modern man, he is described as robust and strong, typical of the time zone when early man evolved into modern man.

More archaeological findings in the form of shell middens and cave shelters decorated with rock art are scattered along our coast and in our mountain ranges. This confirms the presence of a much later and familiar version of mankind, namely the Khoisan. Khoisan is a collective term used to describe both the San (Bushmen) and the Khoikhoi (Hottentots). It suggests that the Khoikhoi in origin were hunter-gatherers (San) who inhabited northern Botswana, then, due to economic change, transformed into the pastoral Khoikhoi (herders), who subsequently immigrated southwards. By 1600 they were distributed widely across South Africa with numerous societies inhabiting the Eastern Cape's river valleys.

The Khoisan lifestyle soon came under increased pressure as a result of the infiltration of other groups into the mostly vacant interior of South Africa. In the Eastern Cape the Khoisan first met up with Xhosa speaking tribes who infiltrated the area from the north in about 1500, and in the 18th century with the white farmers from the Cape Colony, all in a race for prime grazing territory. Initial inter-race relations proved stable, mainly due to co-dependency on trade commodities such as cattle, ivory, feathers, dagga, beads and copper goods. As the number of inhabitants increased, this symbiotic lifestyle was quickly replaced by an open display of intolerance, often leading to violent clashes. Contributing external factors such as the colonial persecution of the San and the Khoikhoi's lack of immunity againt western disease (smallpox), further decreased the Khoisan numbers and removed them as contenders for frontier territory. Acknowledging this reality, many reverted to a nomadic lifestyle, only this time as displaced people to wander the land. By the middle of the 19th century, the San had almost disappeared entirely and the separate identity of the Khoikhoi had disappeared through admixture with other elements, both within the Colony and on the frontier.

Shipwreck survivors first encountered Bantu-speaking people in 1554 along the east coast at Port St. Johns. Historical documents further confirm this presence south of the Umtata River long before the end of the 16th century. Originating from East Africa in about AD1200, Bantu-speaking tribes moved down into southwestern Southern Africa and eventually settled in what is today known as Kwa Zulu-Natal and Eastern Cape. These immigrants were the ancestors of present day Nguni, Sotho and Tsonga. Of these, Nguni were strongly cattle orientated, spoke a language containing the so-called click consonants and lived in scattered settlements. By the late 18th century these major groupings had themselves become differentiated culturally. The southernmost groups settled in the area south of the Umzimvubu River and are commonly known as the Xhosa. Before the appearance of white farmers on the frontier, the Khoisan and Xhosa co-existed peacefully, insofar that intermarriage took place. One Khoikhoi tribe, the Gonaqua, became absorbed by the Xhosa-speakers as the Gqunukwebe.

The 19th century saw the establishment of Cape Colonial society and the emergence of the trekboer as the Cape's first white frontiersman. Forced by economic factors and the stringent colonial legislation, the trekboers proceeded inland in search of available grazing and freedom. The Cape Government, fearing for the safety of the trekboers, proclaimed the Fish River as the new eastern border of the Cape Colony in 1778.

The Fish River was the first border between white and black, introducing a century of intensive conflict. Nine wars (frontier wars) were fought between 1778-1878. Each war revolved around the issue of land possession. The wars demanded the constant import of soldiers to the frontier and provision to sustain them. Military defence posts, forts and headquarters were established all over the region. King William's Town was established as the military headquarters of the C.M.R. in 1874, and East London became the disembarkation point of cargo for the forces stationed in the interior. Relics from this period, such as forts, graves and battle sites, are scattered all over Buffalo City territory. These include the Military Reserve in King William's Town and Fort Glamorgan on East London's West Bank.

In an attempt to lower the tension on the eastern frontier, Sir George Grey, Governor of the Cape Colony, introduced a scheme where large numbers of Europeans would be settled in the territory between the Kei and Keiskamma Rivers (known as British Kaffraria). He thought that this would not only strengthen the defence of the Colony, but also expose blacks to European standards of education and medical treatment. In King William's Town, Grey Hospital, built in 1857, became the first hospital to train black nurses. His immigration scheme materialised in the form of the 1857-59 German Settler import into British Kaffraria. In total, approximately 3000 immigrants settled in the region. They were mainly agriculturalists, though many became prominent traders and later businessmen contributing to the commercial development of the region. Today their monuments and the numerous towns in the region (Berlin, Frankfort, Braunschweig, Breidbach and Stutterheim) bear witness to their pioneering achievements.

During this period, a catastrophic episode in South African history, namely the Xhosa Cattle Killing, took place. It all started in 1856 when the young niece of chief councillor Mhalakaza, Nongqawuse, experienced a vision whilst fetching water. The vision entailed the sacrifice of all cattle and grain, and refraining from sowing. If the Xhosa did this, the vision claimed, their ancestors would rise from the dead and the Whites, Mfengu and unbelievers would be swept into the sea. In the midst of the European onslaught on Xhosa territory and identity, the Xhosa Cattle Killing of 1857 appeared as salvation for the Xhosa nation. But, as time passed, the country starved, thousands died and no resurrection took place. The Xhosa nation, broken and destitute, was dispersed over the Colony looking for food and employment. It would take the Xhosa many years before regaining its former pride, but by then white governance had claimed almost all available land.

The role of missionaries in history, and especially in South African history, is a much debated subject. Often preceding military presence and white settlement, the misionaries were usually the first to encounter and interact with local inhabitants. In 1826 Rev. J. Brownlee chose to establish the Buffalo Mission Station amongst the Ntinde tribe, which was living in the vicinity of present-day King William's Town. Many present educational institutions of the Eastern Cape owe their establishment to the missionary activity of the 19th century. Lovedale, Healdtown and Fort Hare University all started as mission stations. These institutions provided the foundation for the emergence of a black intellectual elite, as well as the leaders of African protest politics.

The roots of black consciousness in South Africa are found in the Eastern Cape. By the 1880's various discriminatory laws had been proclaimed, restricting the activities and lifestyle of non-whites. In 1878 the East London Town Council banned all blacks from town between sunset and sunrise. This was followed by more discriminatory laws. Without voting rights, black protest gave birth to black consciousness and like-minded organisations. The first of these, Imbumba Eliso Lomzi Yabantsundu (Union of Native Vigilance Association), was established in King William's Town in 1887. In East London Rev. Walter Rubusana, educated at Loveldale College, took the lead in protest. The firt black-owned newspapers date from this era. John Tengu Jabavu, educated at Healdtown, was the owner-editor of Imvo Zabantsundu. And in East London, one of the first black-managed newspapers, Izwi Labantu, became the mouthpiece of black consciousness.

The end of the 19th century was overshadowed by the Boer-Brit conflict, which culminated in the Anglo Boer War (1899 - 1902). Though the Buffalo City region was not directly involved in this conflict, it did inspire local initiative and influenced local attitudes. Boer prisoners were imprisoned on the East London West Bank and East London harbour became a disembarkment point for British soldiers. Men were recruited from all over the region. It is estimated that within four months of the outbreak of the war, 1600 Xhosa-speaking men from the area joined the Imperial forces as labourers, transport riders and to perform other duties. The initial boost of economic income generated by the war soon dissipated as war regulations curtailed everyday trade and commercial activities.

The 20th century introduced economic and political trends that were to affect Africans for the rest of the century. In light of their continued political exclusion, and the proclamation of the Land Act in 1913, Africans became more active in their protests. The South African Native National Congress (SANNC) was established in 1912, and became the African National Congress (ANC) in 1923. The most significant non-white organisation of the early 20th century was the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU) established in Cape Town in 1919 amongst the Cape dockworkers. The founder, Clemens Kadalie, is buried in the Cambridge Cemetery, East London.

In 1948 the Nationalist Party came into power and introduced a policy of segregation, better known as 'apartheid'. 'Apartheid' legislation became the focal point of black resistance in South Africa. One such law, the Group Areas Act of 1950, enforced residential apartheid. It entailed the removal of all non-whites from the white areas to specific allocated areas, usually some distance from town. These reserved areas became known as 'locations', where coloureds, blacks and Asians were settled separately. Duncan Village, Mdantsane, Breidbach, Schornville, Ilitha and Dimbaza are examples of such reserved areas. These non-white 'townships' today have become very popular tourist destinations, as examples of transitional, urban life.

The 1970's marked the start of the road to independence for 'Bantu' areas. In the 1970's an ethnically demarcated territory was allocated to create the homeland Ciskei. Mdantsane, Zwelitsha, Dimbaza and Bisho fell into this territory. The Ciskei gained independence in 1981 with Bisho as its capital. It brought a considerable inflow of wealth through the establishment of industries, which took advantage of certain incentives, such as favourable tax and labour concessions, created by the nationalist government. Dimbaza was developed into an industrial zone, whilst Mdantane mainly served the purpose of a dormitory town. But despite the initial prosperity, the Ciskei remained a poor country. Independence and the authoritarian rule of Pres. L. Sebe caused the area to be politically unstable with regular outbursts of unrest. Of particular significance were the bus-boycotts of 1983 when clashes took place in Mdantsane with the loss of lives. The Ciskei ceased to exist in 1994, when it was reincorporated into the Republic following the first democratic election in South African history. Today Bisho forms a core suburb of King William's Town and is the seat of the provincial government of the Eastern Cape Province.

The Eastern Cape has produced a number of prominent leaders, including Robert Sobukwe (PAC), Oliver Tambo, Chris Hani, both former President Mandela and President Mbeki, and Black Consciousness leader Steve Biko. Buffalo City is within driving distance of the international attraction, the Nelson Mandela Museum Complex in Umtata and Qunu. It pays tribute to our former president's legacy Within Buffalo City some of the struggle monuments include Walter Rubusana's grave in Braelyn (EL); Steve Biko Statue (EL); Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance (KWT); the Bisho Massacre Site (Bisho); Bus-boycott Memorial (Mdantsane); and the Daily Dispatch building (EL). Under the editorship of Donald Woods, the Daily Dispatch became a mouthpiece for black consciousness in South Africa.